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THE   TEACHER    AND  THE   SCHOOL 

OR 

SCHOOL  ECONOMY 

EDWARD  T.  PIERCE,   ?D,  D. 


■  ' 


SIATBHORMALSCBOOl 


THE  TEACHER  AND  THE  SCHOOL; 


OR 


SCHOOL  ECONOMY. 


OUTLINES,    DIRECTIONS,   AND    REFERENCES  :     A    BASIS   FOR    LECTURES 

AND    TALKS   GIVEN   BY    THE    PRINCIPAL    TO    THE    SENIOR 

CLASSES    IN    THE     STATE    NORMAL     SCHOOL, 

LOS    ANGELES,    CALIFORNIA. 

Ill  36 


BY 


EDWARD   T.    PIERCE,   Pd.D. 

STATE        ML  SCI     ' 


SACRAMENTO: 

a.  j.  Johnston,      ::::::       supt.  state  printing. 

1896. 

&*&•  /SO  2. 


ALSCH 


I 


PREFACE. 


Young  teachers  need  some  definite  instructions  on  School 
Management  before  they  assume  charge  of  schools.  They  may 
have  a  clear  knowledge  of  the  science  of  teaching,  and  utterly 
fail  in  their  work  if  they  do  not  know  how  to  organize  and 
manage  a  school.  This  knowledge  cannot  be  gained  in  a  Nor- 
mal School.  It  is,  therefore,  the  most  difficult  problem  for 
the  young  teachers  when  they  are  first  thrown  on  their  own 
responsibility. 

These  hints  and  directions  are  formulated  principally  from 
the  experience  of  the  author  for  nearly  twenty-five  years  in  the 
public  schools  of  three  States.  They,  in  no  sense,  make  a 
complete  work  on  School  Economy,  but  may,  with  the  many 
references  given,  be  of  aid  to  teachers  who  have  had  little 
experience. 

Quotations  have  been  freely  taken  from  and  references  made 
to  the  following  works:  Education,  George  Combe;  Principles 
and  Practices  of  Teaching,  Johonnot;  Lectures  on  the  Science 
and  Art  of  Education,  Payne;  School  Management,  Gill; 
School  Management,  Landon;  Philosophy  of  Education,  Rosen- 
cranz;  Education  as  a  Science,  Bain;  Education,  Spencer; 
Teacher  and  Parent,  Northend;  Methods  of  Teaching,  Swett; 
School  Economy,  Wickersham;  School  Management,  Raub; 
School  Management,  Baldwin;  Philosophy  of  School  Disci- 
pline, Kennedy;  School  Management,  Holbrook;  Methods  of 
Teaching  in  Country  Schools,  Lind;  Theory  and  Practice  of 
Teaching,  Page;  School  Amusements,  Root;  Principles  of  Edu- 
cation Practically  Applied,  Greenwood;  Philosophy  of  Educa- 
tion, Tate;  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  Thring;  School 
Management,  Kellogg;  Psychology  Applied  to  Teaching,  Mc- 
Lellan;  Compayre's  Psychology;  Hewett's  Psychology. 


4  PREFACE. 

These  lectures,  or  talks  and  references,  will  cover  the  follow- 
ing general  topics: 

The  School  and  its  Aims. 

Kinds  of  Schools. 

The  Parties  Interested  in  a  School. 

The  Teacher  and  his  Fitness  for  the  Work, 

Engagement. 

Work  Preparatory  to  Taking  Charge  of  a  School. 

Temporary  Organization. 

Permanent  Organization. 

Government. 

School  Government. 

School  Tactics,  and  their  Aid  in  Government. 

The  Recitation. 

The  Clerical  Work  of  the  Teacher. 

Marking  and  Testing  Pupils. 

School  Hygiene. 

Attention. 

A  Teacher's  Kit. 

The  School  Museum. 

The  Library. 

General  Aids  to  School- Work. 

Beautifying  the  School-Room. 

Beautifying  the  School-Grounds. 

As  most  of  our  graduates  teach  first  in  country  or  mixed 
schools,  these  directions  cover  work  that  will  aid  them  most. 
If  any  teach  at  first  in  graded  schools,  they  will  receive  the 
necessary  additional  aid  from  their  Principals.  It  is  hoped 
that  a  chapter  of  advice  to  Principals  and  Superintendents 
may  be  added  to  this  pamphlet  some  time  in  the  future.  The 
present  issue  is  printed  especially  for  the  students  of  the  Los 
Angeles  Normal  School.  Should  it  fall  into  the  hands  of 
others,  let  them  consider  that  the  pamphlet  is  to  be  largely 
supplemented  by  talks  from  the  author. 


THE  TEACHER  AND  THE  SCHOOL; 


OR 


SCHOOL    ECONOMY. 

THE  SCHOOL  AND  ITS  AIMS. 

The  purpose  of  Primary  and  Grammar  Schools  is  to  educate 
boys  and  girls. 

Meaning  of  "  Educate." 

Ref.:  Johonnot,  12,  24. 
Payne,  18,  19. 
Combe,  xxxr,  xxxv. 

School  should  give  both  knowledge  and  training. 
Education  should  be:     1.   Physical;    2.   Moral;    3.   Mental; 
4.  Social;  5.  Patriotic;  6.  ^Esthetic. 
Ref.:  Swett,  23-64. 

What  is  meant  by  "  Training." 

Ref.:  Gill,  10-15. 

Landon,  chap.  I. 
Rosencranz,  chaps,  xiii,  xiv. 
Bain,  chap.  i. 
Spencer,  chap.  t. 

Free  education. 

Ref.:  Rosencranz,  284. 

Education  may  be  gained  through  "Divine  Providence, 
through  experience,  or  through  the  instruction  or  following  the 
directions  of  teachers." 

Ref.:  Johonnot,  chap.  I. 
Landon,  chap.  I,  n. 


SCHOOL    ECONOMY. 


KINDS  OF  SCHOOLS. 


The  different  kinds  of  schools  are  Public  and  Private.  Each 
of  these  may  be  divided  into  Primary,  Grammar,  High,  Col- 
legiate, University,  and  Special  schools.  Character  and  object 
of  each. 

The  schools  in  which  you  will  be  engaged  are  public  schools 
of  the  Primary,  Grammar,  or  High  School  grade. 

The  Public  School — its  organization  and  growth;  by  whom 
supported,  and  purpose  of  such  support. 

Ref.:  Painter,  312-314. 
Kiddle,  715. 
Northend,  11. 
Swett,  21. 

THE  PARTIES  INTERESTED  IN  A  SCHOOL. 

The  parties  interested  in  a  Public  School  are:  1.  The  district 
or  society  at  large;  2.  The  parents  of  the  children  who  attend 
the  school ;  3.  The  children;  4.  The  teacher.     (Kennedy.) 

For  duties  and  rights  of  each, 

See  Kennedy's  Outline. 

Character  of  each. 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  21,  56. 

Wickersham,  1-15. 

THE  TEACHER   AND  HIS  FITNESS  FOR   HIS   WORK. 

1.  The  teacher  must  have  physical  qualifications.  He  should 
(a)  have  good  health,  (b)  understand  and  practice  the  laws  of 
hygiene.  Hygienic  suggestions.  {Ref.:  Page,  chap,  xn;  Bald- 
win, 70.) 

2.  The  teacher  must  have  intellectual  qualifications.  This 
will  include  (a)  scholarship,  (ft)  a  disciplined  mind,  (c)  power 
to  adapt  himself  to  circumstances. 

3.  The  teacher  must  have  professional  qualifications.  He 
must  (a)  love  children,  (b)  have  an  aptness  for  teaching,  (c)  be 
especially  prepared  for  his  work,  (d)  have  an  understanding 
of  the  right  conditions  for  the  best  school  work,  (e)  have  power 
to  control  children,  (/)  be  progressive,  (g)  be  a  student. 


SCHOOL    ECONOMY.  7 

4.  The  teacher  must  have  moral  qualifications.  He  must 
(a)  be  honest,  (b)  be  earnest,  (c)  be  sympathetic,  (d)  be  loyal  to 
duty,  (e)  be  self-denying,  (/)  be  without  bad  habits.  {Ref.: 
Raub,  255.) 

Gen.  Ref.:    Payne,  103-124. 

Page,  chap,  i,  n,  in,  iv. 

Holbrook,  3-64. 

Wicker  sham,  309. 

The  Teacher's  Manual  of  the  Science  and  Art 

of  Teaching,  219. 
Lind,  9-34. 
North  end,  15-92. 
Coombs,  116. 
Raub,  243. 
Landon,  1,12,  22,211. 

ENGAGEMENT. 

How  to  Secure  a  School:  1.  See  County  Superintendent,  if 
possible;  2.  See  Trustees— generally  useless  to  write;  3.  If  you 
wish  a  certain  school,  be  the  first  applicant,  if  possible;  also 
see  the  Trustees  as  close  to  the  time  of  the  election  of  a  teacher 
as  possible;  4.  Recommendations;  5.  Bearing  of  the  teacher. 

Cautions:  1.  Do  not  brag;  2.  Never  undermine  a  fellow- 
teacher;  3.  Do  not  underbid;  4.  Changing  places. 

Contract.     (See  State  School  Law.) 

Janitor.  (See  duties  of  Trustees  in  regard  to  engaging  a 
janitor.) 

Boarding-Place:  1.  Near  the  school;  2.  Respectable;  3.  Com- 
fortable, and  with  facilities  for  studying;  4.  In  a  private  family, 
if  possible. 

Ref.:  Holbrook,  156-164. 

WORK  PREPARATORY  TO  TAKING  CHARGE  OF  A 

SCHOOL. 

Get  to  your  boarding-place  two  or  three  days  before  the 
opening  of  the  school. 

Look  over  the  condition  of  the  school-house  and  the  appa- 
ratus.    What  to  do  in  regard  to:    1.  Cleanliness  of  rooms;  2. 


8  SCHOOL    ECONOMY. 

Seats;  3.  Curtains;   4.  Apparatus;    5.  Library;    6.  Repairs  in 
general;  7.  Supplies. 

Ref.:  The  Teacher's    Manual  of   the  Science   and  Art  of 
Teaching,  499. 
Raub,  23. 

Wickersham,  42-46. 
Root,  149. 
Landon,  245. 

Make  the  acquaintance  of  some  of  the  older  pupils.     Why? 

Secure  information  from  the  friends  of  the  school  in  the 
neighborhood  in  regard  to:  1.  Views  of  the  people  respecting 
education;  2.  Their  ambitions  in  regard  to  their  own  school; 
3.  Their  opinions  regarding  the  methods  and  work  of  your 
predecessor. 

Caution:  Be  careful  in  your  work  before  and  after  taking 
charge  of  the  school  to  say  nothing  against  your  predecessor. 
You  have  your  way;  he  has  his.  Get  information,  if  neces- 
sary, from  parents  in  order  to  aid  you  in  conducting  your 
school  in  the  best  interests  of  the  people;  but  do  not  allow 
pupils  to  tell  you  what  was  done  before  you  assumed  charge. 

Ref.:  Lind,  34. 

Coombs,  39. 
Page,  216. 

Look  up  the  last  register,  and  learn  all  you  can  in  regard  to 
the  classification  of  the  school. 

Plan  the  work  for  the  first  day  and  for  the  first  week  before 
the  school  opens. 

"  Know  what  to  do,  when  to  do  it,  and  how  to  do  it." 

Be  early  the  first  day:  (a)  To  see  that  everything  is  in  order 
to  begin  work;  (b)  To  greet  pupils;  (c)  To  see  that  there  is  order 
on  the  grounds. 

What  to  expect  of  pupils  the  first  morning. 

How  to  meet  pupils. 

Opening  exercises — character. 

Welcoming  talk — character  and  length. 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  88,  114,  118. 
Gill,  52. 
Lind,  38. 
Coombs,  40. 


SCHOOL   ECONOMY.  9 

TEMPORARY  ORGANIZATION. 

Necessity  for  immediate,  though  temporary,  organization. 

1.  Taking  names — ways. 

2.  Classification — directions  and  aids:  (a)  Refer  to  the 
register  of  your  predecessor.  If  correctly  filled  out  this 
should  give  the  classification  of  every  pupil  at  the  close  of 
the  last  term.  If  information  cannot  be  obtained  in  this  way, 
then  classify  approximately  by  questioning;  (6)  Tests  must 
then  be  given.  These  should  be  carefully  prepared  before  the 
day  of  opening.  Character  of  tests  in  Arithmetic,  Language, 
and  Geography;  twenty-five  questions,  ranging  from  easy  to  dif- 
ficult work,  and  covering  different  topics — how  given — time — 
examining  results — classification  of  pupils.  Take  note  that 
this  classification  may  be  modified  after  becoming  acquainted 
with  the  ability  of  the  several  pupils. 

3.  If  already  classified,  begin  work  immediately. 

4.  Give  all  classes  something  to  do  the  first  day  in  all  of 
the  subjects  that  they  are  to  pursue. 

Understand  that  the  purpose  of  this  first  classification  is  to 
learn  what  the  pupils  know. 

Individualism  in  mixed  schools. 
Principles  of  classification.     (Raub,  68.) 
Suggestions  on  classification.     (Raub,  71.) 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  81,  490. 
Holbrook,  165,  172. 
Lind,  37. 
Coombs,  45. 
Raub.  62. 
Wickersham,  83. 
Greenwood,  25. 

Importance  of  making  a  good  beginning.  Teacher  can  hardly 
change  the  impression  made  the  first  day.  Pupils  are  good 
critics.  Teacher  is  fortunate  if  they  say,  "  We  have  a  good 
teacher." 

System  is  necessary  in  all  callings.  Very  little  can  be 
accomplished  in  school  without  a  well-arranged  plan.  This 
applies  with  especial  force  to  the  work  of  the  first  day.     With- 


10  SCHOOL    ECONOMY. 

out  a  plan  the  teacher  learns   at  the  expense  of  the  school. 
Many  changes  consume  valuable  time,  and  cause  confusion. 

Seating. — Do  not  assign  seats  during  the  first  day,  except, 
perhaps,  by  classes.  Why?  Have  them  understand  that  the 
seating  is  but  temporary,  and  that  you  shall  re-seat  them  soon. 

The  programme  for  the  first  day  and  for  the  first  week  must 
be  carefully  arranged,  so  as  to  need  but  few  changes  till  you 
know  the  needs  of  the  schoo 

DIRECTIONS    AND    HINTS    FOR    WORK    OF    FIRST    DAY. 

1.  Make  no  rules  during  the  first  day;  study  your  school. 

2.  Before  any  rule  is  passed,  be  sure  that  it  is  needed,  and 
that  you  can  enforce  it. 

3.  If  there  are  many  faults  in  the  school,  "  make  haste 
slowly." 

4.  Your  aim  in  organization  should  be  to  teach  pupils  to 
govern  themselves,  and  to  work  for  themselves;  hence  the 
necessity  of  waiting  to  see  the  needs  of  the  school. 

5.  How  to  have  your  pupils  come  to  class  seats,  and  pass  out 
during  the  first  day. 

6.  What  to  do  about  whispering,  about  leaving  seats,  and 
about  going  out  the  first  day. 

7.  What  to  do  in  the  following  special  cases,  if  they  occur 
during  the  first  day:  (a)  Coming  to  the  class  seats  in  an 
irregular,  careless  manner;  (b)  Shuffling  feet  in  movements; 
(c)   Asking  to  go  out  too  often;   (d)  Noisy  speech. 

8.  Principal  objects  to  be  gained  during  the  first  day:  (a)  To 
create  in  the  minds  of  the  children  a  favorable  impression  of 
the  school  and  of  the  teacher;  (b)  To  establish  a  kind  of  order 
which  should  daily  improve;  (c)  To  test,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
relative  standings  of  pupils,  and  to  classify  temporarily. 

"What  to  do,"  "When  to  do  it,"  and  "How  to  do  it"  must 
be  thought  out  before  entering  the  school.  Leave  as  little  as 
possible  for  the  impulse  of  the  moment. 

What  Not  to  Do  the  First  Day:  1.  Make  no  positive  rules; 
2.  Do  not  think  you  can  reform  the  school  in  a  day;  3.  Do  not 
be  hasty  or  appear  excited;  4.  Do  not  scold;  5.  Do  not  be  fret- 
ful; 6.  Do  not  criticise  your  predecessor;  7.  Do  not  comment 
on  the  order  or  appearance  of  the  school;  8.  Do  not  order  per- 
emptorily if  you  can  avoid  doing  so. 


SCHOOL   ECONOMY.  11 

General  Direction:  Use  tact.  Do  not  go  into  a  new  school 
and  think  that  you  must  have  things  done  according  to  some 
set  plan.     Have  a  plan  and  adapt  it  to  circumstances. 

Ref.\  Baldwin,  chap.  v-vi. 
Wickersham,  chap.  n. 
Page,  216-225. 
Raub,  62-65. 

PERMANENT  ORGANIZATION. 

Why  no  organization  can  be  really  permanent. 

1.  Calling  roll — different  methods  and  devices. 

2.  Morning  exercises:  (a)  Object;  (6)  Character:  singing, — 
reciting  selections, — quotations, — readings, — experiments;  (c) 
Time  occupied;  (d)  Results  that  should  be  obtained. 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  110. 
Raub,  80. 

3.  Methods  of  seating:  (a)  By  classes;  (b)  According  to 
size;  (c)  Boys  and  girls  promiscuously;  (d)  What  to  do  if 
there  are  double  seats;  (e)  One  class  with  another. 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  112. 

GENERAL    PROVISIONS   IN    REGARD    TO    STUDY. 

1.  How  to  study:  (a)  From  text-books;  (b)  From  library 
books;  (c)  From  supplementary  books;  (d)  From  recitations 
of  classmates;  (e)  From  teacher's  talks.  Discussion  of  each 
method. 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  chap.  in. 

2.  When  to  study:  (a)  At  school — see  "Programme"^ 
(b)  At  home — directions  to  give  pupils  in  regard  to  this  last. 

Ref.:  Wickersham,  70. 
Baldwin,  118. 
Gill,  65. 
Raub,  66. 
Landon,  109. 

THE    PROGRAMME. 

1.  Value  of  a  good  programme:  (a)  "  It  gives  a  regular  study 
system;  (b)  It  encourages  tenacity;  (c)  It  does  not  allow 
pupils  to  follow  their  whims  and  study  on  one  subject  longer 


12  SCHOOL   ECONOMY. 

than  is  necessary;    (d)  It  inculcates  right  habits;   (e)  It  en- 
courages well-directed  effort,  both  from  teachers  and  pupils; 
(/)   It  gives  a  perpetual  organization,  thus  requiring  every- 
thing to  be  done  at  the  right  time." 
Ref.:  Raub,  72. 

Baldwin,  255. 

Greenwood,  26-32. 

Landon,  198. 

Lind,  36. 

Wickersham,  94. 

2.  General  directions  in  regard  to  making  a  programme:  (a) 
Assign  those  recitations  that  require  the  most  thought  to  the 
early  part  of  the  day — Discussion;  (b)  Avoid  too  many  reci- 
tations; (c)  Combine  classes  in  recitation  as  much  as  possible, 
such  as  Writing,  Drawing,  Drill  in  Vocal  Elements,  etc.;  (d) 
Have  no  more  than  two  or  three  Geography  classes  in  any 
school  with  but  one  teacher — How  to  manage  this — Why  this 
caution;  (e)  The  pupils  in  the  three  lower  grades  should  read 
at  least  four  times  each  day— Why;  (/)  In  large  mixed 
schools  arrange  your  work  so  that  during  part  of  the  recita- 
tion period  you  can  have  pupils  recite  orally;  when  you  are 
ready  for  the  written  work,  call  another  class  to  recite  while 
the  first  goes  on  with  its  work. 

3.  Suggestions  for  making  a  programme  (selected  from  Bald- 
win): (a)  The  programme  must  adapted  to  the  school;  (b) 
Specific  employment  must  be  provided  for  each  pupil  during 
the  entire  school  day;  (c)  All  teaching  should  be  done  during 
the  six  school  hours;  (d)  Adequate  time  must  be  secured  for 
each  recitation;  (e)  Two  classes  in  the  same  branch  may  recite 
at  the  same  time— see  "  Divisions  ";  (/ )  Two  rests  during  each 
half-day  are  highly  important;  (g)  Each  pupil  should,  if  pos- 
sible, have  a  recitation  during  each  of  the  school  hours;  (k) 
The  entire  school  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  engaged  on  the 

same  subject. 

divisions. 

If  the  school  has  six  grades,  divide  it  into  three  divisions;  if 
eight  grades,  divide  into  four  divisions. 

Study  your  Course  of  Study  carefully  and  see  what  it  is  nec- 
essary to  teach.  In  most  schools  in  this  State  you  will  have 
the  following 


SCHOOL    ECONOMY.  13 

Outline  of  Work. 

Division  D  (First  and  Second  Years):  1.  Reading,  Spelling, 
and  Language;  2.  Number;  3.  Elementary  Science;  4.  Writ- 
ing and  Drawing;  5.  Music. 

Division  C  (Third  and  Fourth  Years):  1.  Reading  and 
Spelling;  2.  Language;  3.  Number;  4.  Elementary  Science 
(this  includes  Geography) ;  5.  Writing  and  Drawing;  6.  Music. 

Division  B  (Fifth  and  Sixth  Years):  1.  Reading  and  Spell- 
ing; 2.  Language;  3.  Arithmetic;  4.  Geography;  5.  Science; 
6.  Writing  and  Drawing;  7.  Music. 

Division  A  (Seventh  and  Eighth  Years):  1.  Reading  and 
Spelling;  2.  Language;  3.  Arithmetic;  4.  Geography  and  His- 
tory; 5.  Physiology  and  Botany;  6.  Writing  and  Drawing;  7. 
Music. 

What  to  do  if  there  are  Ninth-year  pupils. 

Discussion  of  actual  programmes  from  many  different 
districts. 


14 


SCHOOL    ECONOMY. 


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SCHOOL   ECONOMY.  15 

GOVERNMENT. 

Discipline  (Government):  "That  power  of  control  which 
produces  and  sustains  order." 

Kinds  of  government:  1.  Divine;  2.  State;  3.  Family;  4. 
School;  5.  Self. 

Ref.:  Wickersham,  229. 

Old  notion  in  regard  to  government.  True  notion.  End  of 
each  kind  of  government  should  be  to  train  for  self-govern- 
ment. 

Good  government  in  relation  to  any  body  of  people  necessi- 
tates order. 

ORDER. 

Meaning  of  order:  "Fitness  of  condition  of  things."  Illus- 
trations. 

Good  order  requires:  1.  "An  appreciation  of  the  rights  and 
duties  of  all  parties  associated";  2.  "A  conscious  recognition 
of  law  and  authority";  3.  "Cooperation  of  all  parties  for  the 
general  good,  and  the  submission  of  some  to  authority." 

Order  is  positive,  not  negative. 

Extent  and  character  of  order — conditioned  on  character  of 
the  governed  and  the  end  to  be  attained. 

Importance  of  good  order. 

Why  good  order  is  essential  to  progress. 

AYhy  good  order  and  the  power  to  keep  one's  self  in  order 
trains  for  character. 

Ref.:  Gill,  85. 
Tate,  395. 
Baldwin,  192. 
Holbrook,  194. 

PRINCIPLES    OF    GOVERNMENT. 

(Selected  from  Bain.) 

1.  "  Restraints  should  be  as  few  as  the  situation  admits  of." 

2.  "Duties  and  offenses  should  be  definitely  expressed,  so  as 
to  be  clearly  understood.  This  may  not  always  be  possible  to 
the  full  extent,  but  should  be  always  aimed  at." 

3.  "  Offenses  should  be  graduated  according  to  their  heinous- 
ness.  This  needs  clearness  of  discrimination  and  definite 
language." 


16  SCHOOL   ECONOMY. 

4.  "  Voluntary  dispositions  ai-e  to  be  trusted  so  far  as  they  go." 

5.  "  By  organization  and  arrangement,  the  occasions  of  dis- 
order are  avoided.  Quarrels  are  obviated  by  not  permitting 
crowds,  jostlings,  collisions.  Dishonesty  is  checked  by  want  of 
opportunity;  remissness,  by  the  watchful  eye  and  by  definite 
tests  of  performance.'' 

6.  "The  awe  and  influence  of  authority  are  maintained  by  a 
certain  formality  and  state.  Forms  and  ritual  are  adapted  to 
all  the  operations  of  law;  persons  in  authority  are  clothed  with 
dignity  and  inviolability.  The  greater  the  necessity  of  enforce- 
ing  obedience,  the  more  stern  and  imposing  is  the  ritual  of 
authority.  A  slight  tinge  of  formality  should  accompany  even 
the  lowest  forms  of  authority." 

7.  "It  is  understood  that  authority  with  all  its  appurte- 
nances exists  for  the  benefit  of  the  governed,  and  not  as  a 
perquisite  of  the  governor." 

8.  "  The  operation  of  mere  vindictiveness  should  be  curtailed 
to  the  uttermost." 

9.  "  So  far  as  circumstances  allow,  every  one  in  authority 
should  assume  a  benign  character,  seeking  the  benefit  of  those 
under  him,  using  instruction  and  moral  suasion,  so  as  to  stave 
oft'  the  necessity  of  force.  The  effect  of  this  attitude  is  at  its 
utmost  when  its  limits  are  clearly  discerned  and  never  passed." 

10.  "The  reasons  for  repression  and  discipline  should,  as  far 
as  possible,  be  made  intelligible  to  those  concerned,  and  should 
be  referable  solely  to  the  general  good.  This  involves,  as  a  part 
of  national  education,  a  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  society, 
as  being  a  regulated  reciprocity  among  all  the  members,  for  the 
good  of  each  and  all."  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  District. 
(See  Kennedy's  Outline.) 

Re}.:  Bain,  100-104. 

ELEMENTS  OF  CHARACTER  THAT  A  TEACHER  MUST  HAVE  IN- 
ORDER  TO  GOVERN  WELL. 

1.  Self-government:  (a)  As  to  passion  and  anger,  (6)  As  to 
levity,  (c)  As  to  moroseness,  (d)  As  to  frivolity,  (e)  As  to  peev- 
ishness, (/)  As  to  his  treatment  of  those  pupils  that  have  some 
peculiarity;  2.  System  and  orderly  habits;  3.  A  confidence  in 
his  ability  to  govern;  4.  Cheerfulness,  because  this  insures  self- 
control;  5.  Self-assertion;  G.  Decision;  7.  Firmness;  8.  Cour- 
age; 9.  Will  power;  10.  Executive  power  (basis  of  this  is  judg- 


SCHOOL   ECONOMY.  17 

ment,  which  may  be  trained);  11.  Confidence:  (a)  In  himself, 
(b)  In  his  pupils,  (c)  In  his  work;  12.  Culture:  (a)  Of  mind, 
(&)  Of  manners,  (c)  Of  voice;  13.  Love  for  his  pupils  and  a 
desire  to  make  them  happy;  14.  Tolerance;  15.  Sympathy;  16. 
Kindness  of  disposition;  17.  Impartiality;  18.  Tact;  19.  Teach- 
ing power;  20.  Deep  moral  principles;  21.  A  sense  of  justice: 
(a)  To  his  pupils,  (b)  To  the  parents,  (c)  To  the  district,  (d) 
To  the  commonwealth,  (c)  To  himself;  22.  Common  sense, 
which  will  include  a  fitness  of  things. 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  124-137. 
Kellogg,  31. 
Coombs,  83. 
Raub,  173. 
Page,  148. 

SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT. 

School  government  should  be  based  on  the  ends  to  be  attained 
by  the  school  itself,  viz.,  the  right  education  of  the  pupils.  ( Note 
ends  to  be  attained  by  education,  p.  5.) 

To  govern  well  the  teacher  must  understand  and  be  able  to 
perform  the  duties  of:  1.  A  Legislator;  2.  A  Judge;  3.  An  Ex- 
ecutive; for  "  school  government  includes  all  the  various  influ- 
ences and  agencies  brought  to  bear  upon  the  child  while  under 
the  influence  of  the  teacher  to  induce  in  him  such  a  state  as  is 
most  conducive  to  the  success  of  his  education."  (Landon, 
310.)  It  has  for  its  foundation  the  authority  of  the  teacher, 
who  in  many  respects  is  in  loco  parentis.  (See  State  School 
Law.) 

The  Popular  Notion  of  School  Government:  The  true  notion 
keeps  in  mind  two  objects:  1.  To  preserve  a  kind  of  order  for 
the  furtherance  of  the  education  of  pupils;  2.  To  train  pupils 
to  self-government. 

Ref.:  The  Teacher's  Manual  of  the   Science  and  Art  of 
Teaching,  158. 
Swett,  71. 
Lind,  44. 
Coombs,  81. 
Northend,  106. 
Raub,  171. 
Landon,  310. 
Root,  154. 

2 — SE 


SCHOOL    ECONOMY. 


THE    TEACHER    AS    LEGISLATOR. 


The  teacher  as  legislator  must  understand  his  powers  and 
limitations.     (See  State  School  Law.) 

The  teacher  as  legislator  must  have  just  views  of  the  pur- 
pose of  school  government. 

Government  is  for  the  benefit  of  the  governed;  that  is,  to 
further  their  proper  education.  It  should  be  uniform;  that  is, 
should  be  based  on  principles,  and  not  subject  to  the  whims  of 
the  teacher.     It  should  be  equal  for  all — no  school  aristocracy. 

The  teacher  as  legislator  should  have  just  views  of  the  gov- 
erned, for,  1.  They  are  reasonable  beings;  2.  They  have  moral 
sense;  3.  They  love  approbation;  4.  Most  of  them  wish  to  do 
right. 

Ref.:  Swett,  155. 

The  teacher  as  legislator  must  understand  the  meaning  of 
order  in  its  relation  to  the  work  of  the  school.  He  must  have 
an  understanding  of  the  conditions  of  order  and  the  causes 
of  disorder.  Order  depends  on  the  duties  and  rights  of  each 
of  the  parties  interested  in  a  school.  Disorder  is  caused,  or 
may  be  caused,  by  a  lack  of  any  of  the  conditions  of  order 
or  the  violation  of  any  of  the  personal  rights  of  the  parties 
interested  in  the  school. 

The  causes  of  insubordination  may  be:  "1.  Conflict  of  author- 
ity; 2.  Abuse  of  authority;  3.  Abdication  of  authority." 

Discussion  of  Kennedy's  Outline. 

The  teacher  may  violate  any  of  the  rights  of  the  other  parties 
interested  in  a  school  if  he:  1.  Is  unqualified;  2.  Has  bad  man- 
agement. 

To  avoid  the  latter  he  must  clearly  understand  what  are  the 
objects  and  requirements  of  school  legislation. 

The  objects  of  school  legislation  are:  1.  To  find  out  means 
of  preventing  disorder;  2.  To  find  means  of  correcting  disor- 
der; 3.  To  find  means  to  induce  pupils  to  discharge  their  duties 
of  their  own  accord. 

Ref.:  Landon,  321. 

Wickersham,  245. 

School  legislation  requires  the  passage  of  wise  general 
regulations. 


SCHOOL   ECONOMY.  19 

General  Regulations 

May  be  necessary  in  regard  to: 

1.  Regularity  (a)  of  attendance  of  pupils;  (b)  of  school  exer- 
cises (see  "Programme"). 

2.  Promptitude  (a)  of  pupils  (1)  in  arriving  at  school,  (2) 
in  obeying  orders;  (b)  of  teachers  in  beginning  and  closing 
school. 

3.  Decorum  (a)  of  pupils  in  school;  (l>)  of  teacher  at  all 
times. 

4.  Quiet  (a)  of  pupils;  (b)  of  teacher. 

5.  Communication  of  pupils. 

6.  System. 

7.  Morality. 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  138,  474. 

The  teacher,  in  making  general  regulations,  should  observe 
the  following  principles:  1.  They  should  be  few;  2.  They  should 
be  general  rather  than  specific;  that  is,  not  applying  to  special 
duties;  3.  They  should  be  popular;  that  is,  have  the  approval 
of  right-minded  parents  and  pupils;  4.  They  should  be  practi- 
cable; 5.  They  should  be  educational;  6.  They  should  be  rea- 
sonable; 7.  They  should  be  positive,  not  negative;  8.  They 
should,  as  a  rule,  be  inflexible;  9.  They  should  secure  the 
general  good. 

Regulations  should  also  have  in  view  the  cultivation  of  cer- 
tain habits  in  children,  such  as:  "  1.  Promptness  and  regularity; 
2.  Obedience;  3.  Order,  system;  4.  Self-respect;  5.  Respect  for 
the  persons,  property,  and  rights  of  others;  6.  Carefulness; 
7.  Neatness  of  persons  and  surroundings;  8.  Courtesy;  9.  Kind- 
ness; 10.  Industry;  11.  Attention."     (Phelps,  202.) 

The  general  regulations  may  take  note  of  such  require- 
ments as  the  following: 

1.  The  regulation  of  the  conduct  of  the  pupils  (a)  on  their 
way  to  and  from  school,  (6)  on  the  grounds,  (c)  in  school. 

2.  The  defining  of  (a)  the  school  limits,  (b)  the  time  and 
length  of  intermissions. 

3.  The  transaction  of  general  business.    (See  "  Programme.") 

4.  The  administration  of  punishment. 

5.  The  granting  of  privileges. 
Discussion  of  above  topics. 

Ref.:  Coombs,  99. 


20  SCHOOL    ECONOMY. 

The  following  outline,  copied  from  Kennedy's  "  Philosophy 
of  School  Discipline,"  will  give  a  just  conception  of  the  parties 
interested  in  a  school,  and  their  relative  rights  and  duties: 

"Parties  in  a  School:  1.  District;  2.  Parents;  3.  Children; 
4.  Teacher. 

"Conditions  of  Order:  1.  District:  (a)  Ability  to  support, 
(I>)  Willingness,  (c)  Healthy  public  sentiment;  2.  Parents: 
(a)  Appreciation  of  knowledge,  (b)  Wisdom  in  family  manage- 
ment, (c)  Proper  affection  towards  school;  3.  Children:  (a) 
Happiness,  (b)  Respect  for  superiors,  (c)  Interest  in  school; 
4.  Teacher:  (a)  Self-mastery,  (b)  Sound  scholarship,  (c)  Cor- 
rect apprehension. 

"Deductions:  The  power  of  discipline  is  a  moral  force.  Dis- 
cipline is  a  remedial  system.  Moral  order  is  the  undisturbed 
exercise  of  rights  and  the  complete  discharge  of  duties — the 
reign  of  justice. 

"Causes  of  Disorder:  1.  Natural  deformity;  2.  Neglect;  3. 
Reaction  of  injustice." 

Ref.:  Coombs,  97. 
Raub,  185. 

"Injustice — Violation  of  personal  rights. 

"Personal  Rights:  1.  Parents:  (a)  Teacher's  kindness  and 
care,  (b)  To  enjoy  the  develoj3ment  of  the  children,  (c)  To  be 
assured  of  their  children's  success;  2.  District:  (a)  Preserva- 
tion of  property,  (b)  Improved  public  sentiment,  (c)  Enhanced 
value  of  property;  3.  Children:  (a)  Parental  kindness  and 
care,  (b)  Sound  instruction  and  correct  example,  (c)  Maturity; 
4.  Teacher  (conditionally):  (a)  Pay,  (b)  Respect,  obedience, 
and  filial  love,  (c)  Confidence  and  cooperation. 

"  Deduction:  Rights  and  duties  are  correlates."     (Kennedy.) 

Discussion  of  outline  and  the  deduction  of  the  necessity  for 
certain  general  rules  and  regulations  for  the  well-being  of  the 
community,  and  the  inculcation  of  the  above-named  habits  in 
pupils. 

Special  Regulations. 

To  accomplish  the  ends  in  view,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
pass  special  regulations  in  order  to  define  the  acts  and  move- 
ments of  pupils,  and  thus  aid  them  in  the  formation  of  the 
right  habits,  as  well  as  to  enable  the  work  of  the  school  to  be 
performed  with  the  least  friction  and  unnecessary  energy. 


SCHOOL    ECONOMY.  21 

The  following  principles  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  passing 
special  regulations:  1.  They  should  have  for  their  object  the 
formation  of  certain  modes  of  action,  and  should  come  under 
the  head  of  one  of  the  general  regulations;  2.  They  should 
be  definite;  3.  They  should  be  adopted  only  when  absolutely 
necessary;  4.  They  should  be  few. 
Ref.:  Raub,  191. 

Many  special  regulations  may  be  avoided  by  a  careful  sys- 
tem of  school  tactics.  (See  later.)  They  may  be  necessary, 
however,  to  remedy  or  control  some  or  all  of  the  following: 
1.  Tardiness;  2.  Using  knives  in  school;  3.  Disposition  of 
waste  paper;  4.  Defacing  desks  or  buildings;  5.  Throwing 
stones  or  sticks;  6.  Leaving  seats;  7.  Whispering;  8.  Going 
out  during  the  school  session;  9.  Speaking  to  the  teacher 
during  recitations;  10.  Politeness  to  classmates;  11.  Receiving 
help  from  the  teacher;  12.  Limits  within  which  certain  classes 
of  pupils  must  play;  13.  When  pupils  must  be  seated  in  the 
room;  14.  Fighting;  etc. 

Character  of  regulations  in  regard  to  above  faults. 

Under  "  Punishment,"  see  what  to  do  in  case  of  a  violation 
of  a  rule  passed  in  regard  to  any  of  above. 

Adoption  of  Regulations. 

Plan  of  adoption — advantages. 

"1.  Presentation;  2.  Approval;  3.  Adoption;  4.  Pledge; 
5.  Enforcement." 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  142,  143. 

Violation  of  Regulations,  and  Other  Offenses  Against  the  School. 

When  not  to  appear  to  notice  a  misdemeanor. 

When  misdemeanors  should  be  noticed.  What  not  to  do 
when  they  are  noticed.     What  to  do  if  noticed. 

How  to  detect  offenders  if  there  has  been  a  secret  violation 
of  regulations,  or  if  any  special  offense  has  been  committed  by 
an  unknown  party:  "  1.  By  private  confession;  2.  By  negative 
questions;  3.  By  public  questions;  4.  By  seeking  information 
from  well-disposed  pupils;  5.  By  constant  vigilance." 

It  is  sometimes  well  to  give  time  for  the  reformation  of  the 
offender  after  the  matter  has  been  considered  by  the  school. 

Ref.:  Raub,  225. 

Wickersham,  291. 


22  SCHOOL  ECONOMY. 

THE  TEACHER  AS  ATTORNEY  AND  AS  JUDGE. 

Having  adopted  wise  regulations,  if  they  are  violated,  the 
teacher  must  be:  1.  An  attorney  for  the  plaintiff;  2.  An  attor- 
ney for  the  defendant ;  3.  Judge. 

The  plaintiff  may  be:    1.  Society  at  large;   2.  The  district; 

3.  The  parents;  4.  The  school  as  a  whole;  5.  Some  particular 
pupil;  6.  The  teacher  himself. 

The  defendant  may  be:  1.  One  pupil;  2.  Several  pupils;  3. 
The  whole  school;  4.  The  district;  5.  The  parents;  6.  The 
teacher  himself. 

The  teacher,  as  attorney  for  either  party,  must  have  a  clear 
understanding  of  the  cause  of  the  disturbance  or  disorder. 
This  understanding  will  include:  1.  A  knowledge  of  the  rights 
and  duties  of  all  of  the  parties  interested  in  a  school;  2.  A  clear 
apprehension  of  what  rights  a  party  may  be  deprived,  and  of 
what  duty  may  be  left  undone  by  any  party.  "  Rights  and 
duties  are  correlates." 

See  outline  " Conditions  of  Order."     (Kennedy.) 

Discussion  of  the  teacher  as  attorney,  and  of  the  case  of  each 
plaintiff  and  defendant  in  its  relation  to  violated  rights  and 
neglected  duties.  Deduction:  A  plaintiff  necessarily  involves 
a  defendant. 

It  is,  therefore,  the  teacher's  duty  as  attorney  for  the  plaintiff 
to  try  to  find  out  who  the  guilty  one  is,  if  anything  is  out  of 
order.     (See  above.) 

It  is  his  duty  as  attorney  for  the  defendant  to:  1.  Inquire 
into  the  provocation  for  committing  the  offense  or  neglecting 
the  duty;  2.  See  that  the  defendant  is  not  unjustly  condemned. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  as  judge  to  carefully  weigh  the 
evidence  on  both  sides,  to  decide  who  the  guilty  party  is,  and 
to  assign  punishment  or  forgive  the  offender.     Discussion. 

As  a  wise  judge  the  teacher  must:  1.  Be  mature;  2.  He  must 
have  a  knowledge  of  psychology;  3.  He  must  have  self-control; 

4.  He  must  be  above  prejudice;  5.  He  must  be  impartial;  6. 
He  should  consider  the  punishment  as  an  educational  factor  in 
the  reformation  of  the  offender,  if  a  pupil;  7.  He  must  be  just 
and  apportion  the  punishment  according  to  the  heinousness  of 
the  offense — this  may  depend  on  (a)  the  age  of  the  offender,  (b) 
his  peculiar  condition  mentally  and  physically,  (c)  the  number 


SCHOOL  ECONOMY.  23 

of  times  the  offense  has  been  repeated,  (d)  the  motive  with 
which  the  offense  was  committed. 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  69,  132,  145,  148,  151,  162. 
Wickersham,  298,  315. 

THE   TEACHER   AS   EXECUTIVE. 

Having  passed  wise  regulations,  the  teacher  as  an  executive 
must  see  that  they  are  obeyed.  If  not  obeyed,  as  attorney  he 
tries  the  case,  decides  who  the  guilty  party  is,  and  as  judge 
fixes  the  penalty,  after  which,  as  executive,  he  administers  the 
punishment. 

Ref.:  Wickersham,  316. 

PUNISHMENT. 

Necessity  for  punishment. 

Government  is  impossible  without  the  power  to  punish  for 
disobedience.     Discussion. 

Good  management,  which  is  a  phase  of  government,  may 
avoid  the  necessity  for  inflicting  much  punishment. 

The  effects  of  punishment  maybe:  "1.  Immediate  change 
in  conduct  by  inflicting  such  pain  as  to  bring  the  culprit  to  a 
realization  of  the  fact  that  he  has  done  wrong;  2.  Educational 
or  corrective  in  its  results." 

It  has  for  its  general  objects:  "1.  The  reformation  of  the 
offender;  2.  A  warning  to  others;  3.  The  maintaining  of  the 
supremacy  of  the  law." 

Ref.:  Raub,  200. 

Swett,  75. 

School  Punishments. 

"Only  when  all  other  efforts  have  failed  is  punishment, 
which  is  the  real  negation  of  the  error,  the  transgression,  or 
the  vice,  justifiable." 

"  Punishment  as  an  educational  means  is  nevertheless  essen- 
tially corrective,  since,  by  leading  the  youth  to  a  proper  esti- 
mation of  the  fault  and  a  positive  change  in  his  behavior,  it 
seeks  to  improve  him." 

"  Punishment  as  a  negation  of  a  negation,  considered  as  an 
educational  means,  cannot  be  determined  as  to  its  application 
by  the  mere  reference  to  the  deed,  but  must  be  modified  by  the 


24  SCHOOL    ECONOMY. 

peculiarities  of  the  individual  offender,  and  by  other  circum- 
stances. Its  administration  calls  for  the  exercise  of  the  inge- 
nuity and  tact  of  the  educator." 

Ref.:  Rosencranz,  paragraphs  38,  39,  40. 

Principles  relating  to  the  administration  of  school  punish- 
ments:   "1.   Punishment  must   be   certain    for  willful  wrong; 

2.  Punishment  should  be  related  to  offenders  as  effects  to  causes; 

3.  Each  class  of  offenses  should  have  its  own  kind  of  punish- 
ment." 4.  For  other  principles,  see  "  The  Teacher  as  Judge," 
when  assigning  punishment. 

Discussion. 

The  degree  of  punishment  should  depend  upon:  "1.  The 
motive  of  the  offender;  2.  The  nature  of  the  offense;  3.  The 
frequency  of  repetition;  4.  The  difficulty  of  detection;  5.  The 
age  and  sex  of  the  offender;  6.  The  physical  and  mental  state 
of  the  offender;  7.  The  circumstances  under  which  the  offense 
was  committed." 

Ref.:  Same  as  for  "Teacher  as  Judge." 
Holbrook. 
Coombs,  101. 
Thring,  247. 
Raub,  201. 
Wickersham,  254. 
Landon,  338. 

Kinds  of  Punishment. 
Punishment  may  be:    1.  Judicious;    2.  Injudicious. 

Judicious  Punishments  are:  1.  Reproof:  (a)  Individual;  (6) 
Public.     When  to  give  each. 

2.  Privation:  (a)  Of  seat;  (b)  Of  recess;  (c)  Of  recitation; 
(d)  Of  class  position;  (e)  Of  certain  privileges;  (/)  Of  time 
at  noon  or  after  school — caution;  (g)  Of  teacher's  favor. 

3.  Deportment  marks. 

4.  Reparation  of  damages. 

5.  Performance  of  neglected  duties. 

6.  Private  apology. 

7.  Public  apology. 

8.  Confinement. 

9.  Seating  away  from  others. 


SCHOOL    ECONOMY.  25 

10.  Suspension,  which  should  be  only  for:  (a)  Continued 
insubordination,  and  after  other  means  have  failed;  (6)  Gross 
immorality.     Caution. 

11.  Expulsion.  Causes  same  as  for  "suspension,"  only  in  a 
more  marked  degree.     Caution. 

12.  Corporal  punishment. 

Ref.:  Raub,  206. 

Wickersham,  264. 
Page,  176-189. 

Before  administering  corporal  punishment,  the  teacher 
should:  "1.  Be  sure  that  the  pupil  is  guilty;  2.  Appeal  to 
the  honor  of  the  pupil;  3.  Try  other  punishments  first;  4. 
Consult  with  parents  of  the  pupil,  if  punishment  is  to  be 
severe;  5.  Wait  until  he  can  administer  it  coolly  and  deliber- 
ately." 

Principles  which  should  govern  the  administration  of  cor- 
poral punishment:  "1.  It  should  be  private,  unless  the  offense 
is  a  willful  defiance  of  authority;  2.  It  should  be  moderate; 
3.  The  instrument  should  be  appropriate;  4.  It  should  be 
administered  on  the  muscular  parts  of  the  body,  never  on  the 
head;  5.  It  should  be  deliberate,  and  never  in  anger;  6.  The 
pupil  should  be  made  to  feel  that  it  is  given  in  love;  7.  The 
treatment  of  the  pupil  should  be  tender  and  considerate  after 
the  punishment." 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  174. 
Raub,  213. 
Holbrook,  210. 
Wickersham,  303. 
Page,  194. 

Injudicious  Punishments:  1.  Scolding;  2.  Ridicule;  3.  Sar- 
casm; 4.  Expression  of  contempt — harm;  5.  Confinement  of 
small  children;  6.  Personal  indignities — examples;  7.  Per- 
sonal torture — examples;  8.  Performance  of  tasks  for  miscon- 
duct, especially  of  mental  tasks;  9.  Degradation  of  offender; 
10.  Worrying  or  nagging  a  pupil;  11.  Vindictive  punishment; 
12.  Cruel  punishment;  13.  Suspension  from  school,  except  in 
extreme  cases;  14.  Expulsion  from  school,  except  for  causes 
stated  above;  15.  Keeping  in  for  small  offenses;  16.  Corporal 
punishment,  except  when  other  means  fail. 
Ref.:  Raub,  221. 


26  SCHOOL    ECONOMY. 

Cautions:  "1.  Do  not  try  to  make  pupils  learn  by  punish- 
ing them;  2.  Never  inflict  a  punishment  when,  or  in  such  a 
way  that,  a  pupil  has  good  reason  for  resenting  it;  3.  Study 
to  use  as  little  punishment  as  possible;  4.  Be  as  patient 
as  possible — children  are  generally  careless  instead  of  bad; 
5.  Prevent  faults  if  possible,  so  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  for 
punishment;  6.  Punish  only  for  willful  misconduct;  7.  Do  not 
reprove  those  who  try  but  fail;  8.  Remember  that  children 
are  children." 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  chap,  v,  part  u. 
Holbrook,  218. 
Kellogg,  1,  7,  66. 
Page,  179. 

Application  of  punishment  to  cases  when  pupils  violate  any 
of  the  General  or  Special  Regulations  mentioned  under  those 
headings. 

What  to  do  to  remedy  the  following  special  faults:  1.  Dis- 
order from  physical  discomfort;  2.  Disorder  from  coughing; 
3.  Disorder  from  a  rough  and  noisy  class  of  pupils;  4.  Dis- 
order from  unnecessary  and  continuous  laughter;  5.  From 
dropping  slates  and  pencils;  6.  From  noisily  taking  articles 
from  the  desk;  7.  From  noisily  placing  articles  on  the  desk; 
8.  From  noisily  handling  paper  and  turning  leaves;  9.  From 
noisily  moving  feet  on  the  floor,  (a)  while  studying,  (6)  when 
assuming  required  positions;  10.  From  noisily  moving  lips 
while  studying;  11.  From  careless  opening  and  closing  doors; 
12.  From  noisily  closing  ink-wells;  13.  Forgetting  to  bring 
books  to  school;  14.  Forgetting  where  lessons  are;  15.  Look- 
ing out  of  window  during  school  hours,  to  the  neglect  of 
lessons;  16.  Eating  in  school;  17.  Inattention;  18.  Asking  to 
have  questions  repeated;  19.  Failure  to  go  home  after  the 
close  of  school;  20.  Tale-bearing;  21.  Carelessness  in  dress 
and  person;  22.  Imposing  on  weaker  and  younger  pupils; 
23.  Marking  books;  24.  Defacing  buildings;  25.  Want  of 
respect  for  strangers. 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  182. 
Kellogg,  117. 
Coombs,  107. 


SCHOOL    ECONOMY.  27 

What  to  do  with  the  following  kinds  of  boys: 

"  Mama's  Very  Peculiar  Boy  ":  Find  out  whether  he  is  really 
peculiar,  or  only  that "  mama  "  thinks  so.  Talk  with  his  parents. 
Have  them  understand  that  his  "  peculiarities  "  must  not  inter- 
fere with  the  well-being  of  the  school.  Treat  him  as  you  do 
other  boys,  and  insist  on  the  same  obedience  from  him  as  from 
others. 

"The  Petted  and  Spoiled  Boy":  Treat  him  much  as  you  do 
the  "  peculiar  boy,"  and  let  him  know  that  all  in  the  public 
schools  stand  on  an  equality.  Give  him  to  understand  that 
no  partiality  can  be  shown  him  in  school  because  he  has  been 
petted  at  home. 

"The  Fidgety  Boy":  See  that  he  is  given  something  definite 
to  do  all  of  the  time,  and  plenty  of  it.  nsist  on  his  doing 
things  exactly  as  requested.  If  he  is  really  nervous  because 
of  poor  health,  try  to  aid  him  by  directing  the  right  kind  of 
physical  exercise,  and  have  his  parents  consult  a  physician  in 
regard  to  him.  See  that  you  do  not  incite  him  to  nervousness 
yourself. 

"The  Sullen  Boy":  Treat  him  as  you  do  other  boys.  Get 
him  interested  in  some  line  of  work,  and  his  sullenness  will 
doubtless  disappear, 

"The  Fighting  and  Swearing  Boy":  Talk  to  him  alone. 
Show  him  how  wicked  and  unmanly  such  conduct  is.  If  this 
will  not  do,  deprive  him  of  the  society  of  the  other  boys  of  the 
school.  Finally,  if  all  other  means  fail,  send  him  out  of  the 
school,  as  the  other  children  must  not  be  contaminated  by  his 
presence. 

"The  Lazy  Boy":  Get  him  thoroughly  interested,  and  he 
will  work.     Few  boys  are  naturally  lazy. 

"The  Lying  Boy":  Talk  with  him  as  with  the  "  swearing 
boy."  If  no  other  course  will  answer,  punish  him  severely. 
Let  him  see  that  his  untruthfulness  always  reacts  on  himself. 

"The  Noisy  Boy":  Make  him  say  and  do  things  over  in  a 
quiet  manner,  till  his  bad  habit  is  eradicated. 

"The  Saucy  Boy":  Sauciness  is  generally  due  to  an  idea 
that  it  is  smart.  Teach  the  boy  how  impolite  such  a  manner 
is.  Answer  him  politely  but  firmly.  Show  him  the  contrast 
between  his  manner  and  that  of  polite  boys.  Let  him  know 
by  your  manner  that  you  do  not  approve  of  his  ways. 

"The    Forgetful    Boy":    Let   his   forgetfulness   react    upon 


28  SCHOOL    ECONOMY. 

himself  a  few  times,  and  he  will  be  more  likely  to  remember 
afterwards.     Illustration. 

"The  Timid  Boy":  Give  him  easy  questions  at  first.  Let 
him  see  that  he  is  accomplishing  something.  Praise  him  for 
what  he  does,  and  thus  give  him  confidence. 

"  The  '  Smart '  Boy  ":  Aim  to  show  him  that  he  does  not  know 
more  than  the  others.  A  few  fiat  failures  on  his  part  may  be 
brought  about  by  the  teacher,  and  he  be  thus  taught  not  to 
over-estimate  his  ability. 

"The  Sly  Boy":  Keep  your  eye  on  him,  and  let  him  know 
that  you  do  so.  Give  him  to  understand  that  you  do  not  trust 
him.  When  he  shows  improvement,  let  him  know  that  you 
notice  this  also. 

"The  Smooth  Boy":  The  smooth  boy  is  one  who  is  generally 
trying  to  conceal  something,  or  is  one  who  considers  himself 
smart.  He  is  a  combination  of  "the  smart  boy"  and  "the  sly 
boy." 

"The  Touchy  Boy":  This  boy  has  doubtless  been  imposed 
upon  many  times.  Be  candid  and  firm  with  him.  Let  him 
feel  that  you  are  trying  to  help  him.  Give  him  confidence  in 
you.  See  that  other  pupils  do  not  impose  upon  him,  and  he 
will  doubtless  overcome  this  fretful  habit. 

"The  Obstinate  Boy":  Be  firm  with  him.  Let  him  know 
that  you  always  mean  what  you  say.  Insist  on  his  performing 
what  he  is  told  to  do.     Never  give  up  to  him. 

Ref.:  Greenwood,  173. 

SCHOOL  TACTICS,  AND  THEIR  AID  IN  GOVERNMENT. 

Definition. 

Value:  1.  To  secure  system;  2.  To  save  time;  3.  To  train 
pupils  to  prompt  obedience;  4.  To  inculcate  right  habits. 

Principles  Governing  School  Tactics:  School  tactics  should: 
1.  "Be  uniform;  2.  Be  necessitated  by  school  work;  3.  Be  few 
and  significant;  4.  Each  movement  have  its  own  signal. "- 

Ref.:  Raub,  77. 

Baldwin,  90. 

Movements  should:  1.  Follow  signals;  2.  Be  executed  quietly, 
quickly,  and  with  precision. 


SCHOOL    ECONOMY.  29 

Signals  may  be  given:  1.  By  the  voice,  in  the  falling  inflec- 
tion, and  in  a  low,  firm  tone;  2.  By  a  tap  of  the  bell;  3.  By  a 
tap  of  the  pencil;  4.  By  a  movement  of  the  hand  or  head. 

Special  signals  should  be  given  and  definite  movements 
required  in:  1.  Calling  school;  2.  Dismissing  school;  3.  Call- 
ing classes;  4.  Dismissing  classes;  5.  Board  Avork;  6.  Writing 
and  drawing. 

Order  in  Calling  School:  1.  King  five-minute  bell;  2.  Ring 
last  bell;  3.  Pupils  who  are  outside  fall  in  line  in  proper  places; 
4.  March  in  and  hang  hats  and  wraps;  5.  March  into  school- 
room in  such  order  as  to  bring  all  to  their  own  seats  at  about 
the  same  time;  6.  Standby  seats;  7.  Be  seated  in  proper  position. 

Order  in  Dismissing  School:  1.  School  attention  and  absolute 
quiet;  2.  Clear  desks  and  arrange  books;  3.  Position;  4.  Special 
directions  or  information  by  teacher  preparatory  to  dismissing 
for  the  day;  5.  Turn;  6.  Rise;  7.  March. 

Order  in  Calling  Classes:  1.  Ready;  2.  Turn;  3.  Rise;  4. 
Pass';  5.  Seated. 

Order  in  Dismissing  Classes:  1.  Rise;  2.  Turn;  3.  Pass;  4. 
Seated. 

The  same  signals  may  be  used  for  dismissing  one  class  and 
calling  another. 

Order  in  Board  Work:  1.  Rise;  2.  Pass  and  face;  3.  Erase; 

4.  Face;  5.  Number;  6.  Write  name  and  number;  7.  Face;  8. 
Work;  9.  Face;  10.  Explain;  11.  Pass  to  seats;  12.  Seated. 

Order  in  Writing  Exercises:  1.  Attention;  2.  Position;  3. 
Monitors  stand;  4.  Monitors  take  books;  5.  Monitors  pass 
books;  6.  Open  ink-wells;  7.  Open  books;  8.  Take  pens;  9. 
Write;  10.  Wipe  pens;  11.  Lay  down  pens;  12.  Use  blotter; 
13.  Close  books;  14.  Close  ink-wells;  15.  Position;  16.  Moni- 
tors stand;  17.  Monitors  pass;  18.  Monitors  collect  books. 

Discussion  of  above,  and  cautions  in  regard  to  the  same. 

Signals  by  pupils  may  be:  1.  In  the  class;  2.  At  seats. 

Signals  in  the  class  may  be  to  signify  a  desire:  1.  To  answer — 
when  to  allow  this;  2.  To  criticise — when  to  allow;  3.  To  ask  a 
question — when  to  allow;  4.  To  express  concurrence  or  opposi- 
tion— when  to  allow. 

Signals  at  seats  may  be  to  signify  a  desire:  1.  To  get  some- 
thing; 2.  To  leave  seat;  3.  To  speak — caution;  4.  To  use  knife; 

5.  To  go  out;  6.  To  speak  to  the  teacher. 

Special  signals  to  be  given  in  each  of  the  above  cases. 


30  SCHOOL   ECONOMY. 

Special  directions  by  teachers.  Meaning  of:  1.  "School"; 
2.  "Class";  3.  "Boys";  4.  "Girls";  5.  "Division."  When 
these  should  be  used. 

Directions  for  Teachers  to  give  to  Pupils:  1.  Obey  each  signal 
promptly  and  quietly;  2.  Do  not  snap  fingers  or  make  other 
noises  in  order  to  attract  attention ;  3.  In  giving  signals  with 
the  hand,  do  not  shake  the  arm;  4.  When  giving  a  signal,  wait 
quietly  till  seen  by  the  teacher. 

Directions  to  Teachers:  1.  Enforce  the  above  requirements  of 
pupils  after  they  are  found  to  be  necessary;  2.  Before  giving  a 
second  order,  wait  until  the  first  is  obeyed  by  every  one  for 
whom  it  is  given;  3.  If  pupils  do  not  obey  signals  promptly 
and  quietly,  repeat  all  of  the  movements  from  the  beginning; 
if  it  is  necessary  to  take  up  more  time  in  this  way,  practice 
after  the  hour  for  closing;  4.  Insist  on  having  all  of  the  pupils 
for  whom  a  signal  is  given,  do  the  same  thing  at  the  same  time. 

What  to  do  with  laggards. 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  90,  99. 

Rewards  and  Incentives  that  may  Incite  Pupils  to  Good  Con- 
duct and  to  Study:  "  1.  Approbation  of  relatives  and  friends;  2, 
Approbation  of  society;  3.  Success  in  school;  4.  Success  in  the 
attainment  of  life's  ends;  5.  An  approving  conscience;  6.  The 
favor  of  God;"  7.  Rewards  by  the  teacher,  (a)  Gifts— caution, 
(b)  Medals,  (c)  Name  on  Roll  of  Honor,  (d)  Honorable  posi- 
tion,  (e)  Approbation. 

Every  wise  incentive  should  be  made  use  of  to  induce  pupils 
to  do  right  and  thus  avoid  the  necessity  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  of  appearing  to  govern. 

Ref.:  Coombs,  66. 
Kellogg,  36. 
Wicker  sham,  150. 

General  Directions  to  the  Teacher  in  Striving  to  Obtain  Good 
Order  in  the  School-Room:  1.  Have  it  understood  from  the  be- 
ginning that  the  school-room  must  be  quiet  at  all  times;  2.  Do 
not  assume  to  be  what  you  are  not;  3.  Have  system,  a  time  for 
everything,  a  place  for  everything,  and  a  method  for  doing 
everything;    4.  Avoid   governing  too  much;    5.  Request,  not 


SCHOOL    ECONOMY.  31 

command,  whenever  expedient  for  the  best  interests  of  the 
pupil  and  the  school;  6.  Strive  to  govern  by  the  eye,  not  by  the 
voice;  7.  Stand  well  back  from  your  pupils  so  as  to  see  every 
one;  8.  Have  dull,  restless,  and  backward  pupils  in  front;  9. 
Try  to  impress  pupils  with  the  respect  due  to  law;  10.  Give 
as  few  orders  as  possible,  but  be  firm  in  insisting  on  prompt 
and  exact  obedience;  11.  Speak  quietly,  distinctly,  and  firmly, 
never  in  a  loud,  blustering  tone;  12.  Do  not  repeat,  it  is  de- 
moralizing; 13.  Be  ever  on  the  alert,  and  warn  when  necessary; 

14.  Avoid  exhibiting  or  entertaining  a  suspicious  spirit ;  "  the 
law  presumes  a  man  is  innocent  until  he  is  proven  guilty;" 

15.  Let  pupils  know  that  you  notice  and  approve  of  their  good 
traits;  show  them  that  you  have  confidence  in  them;  16.  Have 
a  register  of  credits  or  some  roll  of  honor  for  good  pupils;  17. 
Encourage  pupils  whenever  possible;  18.  Visit  parents  as  often 
as  possible,  especially  those  of  troublesome  pupils;  19.  Try  to 
have  pupils  understand  and  obey  "  the  law  of  conscience"  ;  20. 
Let  pupils  be  sure  that  they  will  have  fair  treatment;  21.  Cul- 
tivate a  cheerful  and  pleasant  disposition;  22.  Permit  pupils  to 
do  favors;  23.  When  you  grant  favors,  do  so  cordially;  24. 
Always  perform  what  you  promise  either  in  the  way  of  favors 
or  punishment  without  regard  to  lapse  of  time;  25.  Do  not 
worry;  26.  Do  not  nag  pupils;  27.  Do  not  scold;  28.  Never 
threaten;  29.  Never  sneer  at  pupils;  30.  Seldom  refer  to  the 
regulations;  31.  Have  a  quiet  force  about  you  in  your  manner 
that  will  make  your  authority  felt,  not  seen;  32.  The  need  of 
punishment  in  nearly  all  cases  means  weak  handling  ;  if  pupils 
are  troublesome,  look  to  yourself  first;  33.  Do  not  expect  to 
reform  the  school  in  a  day,  if  reformation  is  necessary;  "make 
haste  slowly";  34.  "Wake  up  mind  in  the  school  and  in  the 
district,  and  you  will  have  little  trouble  in  governing." 

Ref.:  Kellogg,  16. 
Swett,  88. 
Page,  159. 

THE    RECITATION. 

1.  The  direct  objects  of  the  recitation  are:  (a)  To  direct 
pupils  to  sources  of  knowledge  and  to  teach  them  how  to 
study;  (6)  To  impart  knowledge  to  pupils;  (c)  To  test  the 
knowledge  of  pupils;  (d)  To  correct  the  errors  of  pupils;  (e) 
To  give  advanced  lessons. 


32  SCHOOL    ECONOMY. 

2.  Indirect  but  equally  important  objects:  (a)  The  mental 
discipline  of  pupils;  (b)  To  cultivate  habits  of  attention;  (c) 
To  enable  pupils  to  express  themselves  properly;  (d)  To  give 
pupils  self-confidence;  (e)  To  enable  pupils  to  fix  their  minds 
on  what  they  are  attempting  to  learn;  (/)  To  awaken  an 
interest  in  study;  (g)  To  lead  pupils  to  apply  their  knowledge; 
(h)  To  enable  the  teacher  to  keep  before  the  minds  of  pupils 
proper  incentives  to  study. 

Ref.:  Swett,  95. 
Coombs,  47. 
Baldwin,  324. 
Wickersham,  175. 
Raub,  111. 
Greenwood,  37. 

General  Methods  of  Conducting  Recitations:  (a)  Oral;  (b) 
Written.     Advantages  of  each. 

The  Oral  Method  may  be:  (a)  By  question  and  answer;  (6) 
Topical;  (c)  Conversational;  (d)  Reporting  on  some  special 
part  of  the  subject  by  certain  pupils;   (e)  Reciprocal. 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  341. 

The  Written  Method  may  be:  (a)  By  question  and  answer; 
(b)  Topical;   (c)   By  outline. 

The  Oral  Question  and  Answer  Method  may  be:  (a)  Socratic; 
(b)  For  the  purpose  of  testing  how  much  of  the  lesson  has 
been  learned. 

The  Socratic  Method  of  Questioning:  (a)  Why  so  named; 
(b)  Purpose;   (c)  Illustrations;   (d)  Advantages;   (e)  Caution. 

Both  kinds  of  questioning  should  be  employed  in  nearly  every 
recitation. 

Ref.:  McLellan,  204. 
Coombs,  51. 
Greenwood,  49-61. 
Tate,  311. 
Wickersham,  184. 
Raub,  115. 

4 

The  Objects  of  Questioning  are:  "(a)  To  discuss  knowledge; 
(b)  To  test  the  retention  of  knowledge;  (c)  To  fix  knowledge; 
(d)  To  bring  out  the  important  details  of  the  subject;  (e)  To 


> 


SCHOOL    ECONOMY.  33 

extend  or  enlarge  knowledge;  (/)  To  excite  interest;  (g)  To 
arouse  attention;  (h)  To  properly  direct  the  efforts  of  the 
learner;  (i)  To  incite  the  pupil  to  think  for  himself;  (j)  To 
lead  the  pupil  to  discover  the  truth  for  himself;  (k)  To  lead 
the  pupil  to  observe  closely;  (I)  To  excite  ambition;  (m)  To 
train  the  pupil  to  analyze  and  synthesize." 

Ref.:  Coombs,  53. 

McLellan,  187. 
Raub,  122. 
Greenwood,  71. 

Principles  Underlying  the  Art  of  Questioning:  "  1.  Questions 
must  be  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  the  pupils;  2.  Questions 
should  follow  each  other  in  logical  order;"  this  will  be  true  only 
when  the  questioner  has  a  direct  object  in  view;  3.  Questions 
should  be  framed  carefully  and  correctly. 

"As  to  form,  questions  should  be:  1.  Concise;  2.  Adapted  to 
the  subject,  and  in  general  should  be  one  of  the  following: 
(a)  What  is  this  or  that?  (6)  How  is  this  or  that?  (c)  Why 
is  this  or  that  thus  or  so?  (d)  Whence  is  this  or  that?  Adapt- 
ability of  each  form  to  the  different  ages  of  pupils." 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  347. 
McLellan,  245. 
Raub,  127. 
Wickersham,  190. 

Cautions  in  Questioning:  "1.  Avoid  questions  that  include 
too  much;  2.  Avoid  pointless  and  silly  questions;  3.  Avoid 
questions  that  are  made  to  show  your  own  learning;  4.  Avoid 
questions  that  may  be  answered  by  yes  or  no;  5.  Avoid  ques- 
tions that  will  suggest  the  answer;  6.  Avoid  haphazard  ques- 
tions; 7.  Avoid  questions  of  the  alternative  form;  8.  Do  not 
repeat  questions." 

Manner  of  rutting  Questions:  If  you  are  testing,  give  the 
question  in  a  general  way  before  calling  on  any  one  to  recite. 
Hold  every  pupil  for  an  understanding  of  the  question,  but 
call  on  some  particular  one  to  recite.  Call  on  pupils  promis- 
cuously. To  make  sure  that  pupils  are  called  on  an  equal 
number  of  times,  if  you  wish  this,  adopt  one  of  the  following 
plans:  (a)  Cards;  (b)  Chart  of  class;  (c)  Use  of  record  cards. 
3 — SE 


34  SCHOOL   ECONOMY. 

Sometimes  put  all  of  the  questions  to  a  single  pupil;  some- 
times call  on  a  second  pupil  to  go  on  with  a  recitation,  if  this 
can  be  done.  Do  not  put  questions  after  calling  on  a  pupil. 
Do  not  call  on  pupils  in  an  alphabetical  order.  Do  not  call  on 
them  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  seated.  Frequently  call 
up  the  inattentive  to  answer.  Give  slow  pupils  time  to  think. 
When  you  make  an  explanation,  to  see  that  your  pupils  under- 
stand it,  call  on  some  one  to  repeat  it. 

Ref.:  Raub,  128. 

Wickersham,  196. 
Coombs,  55. 

Matter  and  Form  of  Answers:  Answers  should  be:  (a)  To  the 
point;  (b)  Clear;  (c)  Concise;  (d)  Comprehensive;  (e)  Given 
understanding^ ;  (/)  Correct;  (g)  Given  in  proper  tones  of 
voice. 

Ref.:  McLellan,  251. 
Baldwin,  350. 

Pupils  should:  1.  Sit  erect  in  the  class;  2.  Stand  while  recit- 
ing; 3.  Answer  in  their  own  words;  4.  Answer  in  complete 
sentences;  5.  Never  prompt;  6.  Speak  clearly  and  distinctly. 
7.  They  may  raise  their  hands  at  the  proper  time,  which  may 
be:  (a)  When  they  can  answer  a  question  which  cannot  be 
answered  by  the  one  reciting;  (b)  When  they  disagree  with  the 
answer  given;  (c)  When  they  wish  to  criticise;  (d)  When  they 
wish  to  ask  a  question. 

Ref.:  Coombs,  47. 

Raub,  128-133. 
Wickersham,  198-200. 

Qualifications  of  the   Questioner:    "1.  Thorough  knowledge; 

2.  Thorough  preparation  for  the  lessons  of  the  day;  3.  Analytic 
power;  4.  Knowledge  of  the  mind;  5.  Practice  in  questioning; 
6.  Personal  endowment." 

Ref.:  McLeilan,  240. 

Special  Directions  to  Teachers  in  the  Recitation:  1.  Methods 
of  seating  classes  during  recitations;  2.  Go  over  difficult  lessons 
with  pupils  before  requiring  knowledge  of  the  work  from  them; 

3.  Make  lessons  short;  4.  Face  every  pupil  who  is  in  the  reci- 


SCHOOL    ECONOMY.  35 

tation  class;  5.  Use  your  eyes;  6.  Use  the  conversational  tone 
of  voice;  7.  Sit  and  stand  erect;  8.  Keep  a  pleasant  counte- 
nance; 9.  Have  something  interesting  to  say  to  the  class;  10. 
Hold  the  attention  of  the  class  (see  "Attention,  and  How  to 
Secure  It");  11.  Do  not  repeat  questions;  12.  Do  not  repeat 
answers;  13.  Encourage  pupils  to  ask  questions;  14.  Train 
pupils  to  use  good  English,  but  do  not  always  interrupt  to  cor- 
rect them;  15.  Call  on  dull  pupils  often,  so  as  to  make  them 
think;  16.  Study  ''apperception"  and  its  application  in  the 
recitation;  17.  Hold  each  pupil  responsible  for  each  answer; 
18.  Except  in  special  cases,  require  the  pupil  to  recite  in  his 
own  language;  19.  Never  do  for  pupils  what  can  be  done  by 
themselves;  20.  Train  pupils  to  be  honest,  independent,  and 
thorough;  21.  The  pupils,  not  the  teacher,  should  do  the  work; 
22.  Manage,  if  possible,  to  reach  each  pupil  individually  dur- 
ing each  recitation;  23.  Oral  and  written  exercises  should 
occupy  about  equal  time;  24.  In  written  recitations,  require 
neatness — accept  no  slovenly  written  paper;  25.  Study  each 
pupil,  and  try  to  adapt  your  questions  and  the  work  assigned 
to  individual  needs;  26.  Do  not  scold  a  pupil  for  not  reciting 
well — see  what  the  trouble  is  and  seek  to  remedy  it;  27.  Put 
life  into  every  recitation — the  hearts  of  both  teacher  and  pupils 
must  be  in  the  work  to  accomplish  right  results. 

Read:  Baldwin,  193. 
Raub,  134. 
Greenwood,  74. 

THE  CLERICAL  WORK  OF  THE  TEACHER. 

1.  Reports  to  the  County  Superintendent. 

2.  Keeping  the  school  register. 

3.  Reports  to  parents. 

4.  Keeping  record  of  standing  of  pupils. 

(See  the  outline  of  the  teacher's  duties  in  the  School  Regis- 
ter, and  the  topic,  "Marking  and  Testing  Pupils,"  in  this 
pamphlet.) 


36  SCHOOL    ECONOMY. 

MARKING  AND  TESTING  PUPILS. 

MARKING. 

Different  systems  of  marking:  1.  Per  cent  method;  2.  Use 
of  letters;  3.  Use  of  words;  4.  Recording  opinion  of  advance- 
ment at  stated  intervals. 

Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each. 

Frequency  of  marking. 

Marking  should  be  based  on:  1.  Effort;  2.  Originality;  3. 
Attainment. 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  363. 

Use  of  Report  Cards:  Advantage  and  disadvantage  of  their 
use.     How  to  use  them.     Forms  of  report  cards. 

EXAMINATIONS. 

Arguments  for  and  against. 

Methods  of  examination,  oral  and  written:  1.  By  questions; 
2.  Topical;  3.  By  paper  on  some  division  of  a  subject.  Dis- 
cussion of  each. 

Daily  tests — character  and  length.     (See  "  Recitation.") 

Monthly  tests — character  and  length. 

Term  tests — character  and  length. 

Yearly  tests — character  and  length. 

SCHOOL  HYGIENE. 

Importance  of  a  knowledge  of  school  hygiene. 

General  ignorance  of  the  teacher  in  regard  to  this  subject. 

The  following  points  should  he  carefully  considered  and 
attended  to:  1.  Proper  lighting  of  the  school-room;  2.  Heat- 
ing; 3.  Ventilation;  4.  Condition  of  the  floors  and  walls;  5. 
Position  of  pupils  while  studying;  6.  Proper  and  systematic 
exercise — calisthenics;  7.  Play. 

Discussion  of  each  topic. 

Ref.:  Raub,  27. 

The  pupils  should  be  instructed  on  the  following:  1.  Clean- 
liness of  person;   2.  Cleanliness  of  clothing;   3.  Correction  of 


SCHOOL    ECONOMY.  37 

obnoxious  and  unhealthful  personal  habits;  4.  The  proper 
supply  of  food;  5.  The  proper  kind  and  amount  of  clothing; 
6.  The  need  of  plenty  of  sleep;  7.  The  importance  of  having  a 
cheerful  disposition. 

ATTENTION. 

Much  has  been  written  on  Attention  by  psychologists  and 
those  interested  in  education.  Its  importance  is  understood  by 
all  teachers.  On  it  all  intellectual  growth  is  founded,  and 
young  teachers  need  some  specific  directions  to  aid  them  in 
holding  the  attention  of  pupils.  It  has,  therefore,  been  thought 
wise  to  give  a  few  rules,  many  of  them  culled  from  eminent 
writers  on  the  science  of  pedagogy. 

The  Moral  Consequences  of  Defective  Attention:  "  It  is  not  only 
in  study,  in  intellectual  labor,  that  attention  is  profitable.  The 
conduct  of  life  and  the  virtues  of  character  have  no  less  need  of 
it  than  excellencies  of  intelligence  have.  Defective  attention  in 
practical  life  is  the  synonym  of  thoughtlessness  and  heedless- 
ness. To  be  habitually  attentive  is  not  only  the  best  means  of 
learning  and  progressing  in  the  sciences,  and  the  most  effective 
prayer  which  we  can  address  to  the  truth  in  order  that  it  may 
bestow  itself  upon  us,  but  it  is  also  one  of  the  most  precious 
means  of  moral  perfection,  the  surest  means  of  shunning  mis- 
takes and  faults,  and  one  of  the  most  necessary  elements  of 
virtue."     (Compayre.) 

Conditions  Favorable  to  Securing  Attention:  I.  Physical:  1. 
The  pupil  must  be  healthy  bodily  and  his  hearing  and  sight 
must  be  normal.  "Good  blood,  abundant  sleep,  and  a  sound, 
well-nourished  brain  are  particularly  required  by  those  who 
wish  to  be  able  to  'attend'  to  their  work,  whatever  it  may  be." 

2.  The  room  must  be  properly  lighted,  heated,  and  ventilated; 

3.  The  pupil  must  have  a  comfortable  seat  or  stand  in  a  proper 
position. 

II.  Mental:  1.  The  attention  must  not  be  called  away  from 
the  matter  in  hand  by  other  attractions  or  disturbances.  The 
pupil  is  not  generally  inattentive,  but  is  giving  his  attention  to 
something  else  besides  the  lesson.  Examples.  2.  "The  mind 
must  not  be  disturbed  by  emotions  that  fill  consciousness  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  topic  under  discussion.  Whatever  occasions 
strong  emotions  of  pleasure  or  pain  claims  attention." 


38  SCHOOL   ECONOMY. 

Difficulties  in  the  Way  of  Securing  Attention  from  Certain 
Pupils:  "  The  boy  of  feeble  intellect  is  inattentive  because  of 
incapacity. 

"The  sluggish,  lazy  boy  is  inattentive  from  a  want  of  men- 
tal activity. 

"  The  timid  boy  is  inattentive  for  want  of  sufficient  confi- 
dence in  his  mental  powers. 

"  The  boy  of  genius  is  inattentive,  in  the  ordinary  accepta- 
tion of  the  word;  to  a  common  observer  he  appears  dull,  but 
it  is  the  dullness  of  inward  thoughts."     (Tate.) 

Rules  for  Gaining  and  Keeping  Attention:  "The  attention 
can  be  most  easily  secured  at  the  beginning  of  a  recitation. 
This  the  teacher  should  know  how  to  retain  till  the  class  is 
dismissed."     The  following  rules  and  directions  may  be  of  aid: 

Comenius  claimed  that  a  teacher  could  hold  the  attention 
of  a  large  class:  1.  By  always  bringing  before  his  pupils  some- 
thing pleasing  and  profitable;  2.  By  introducing  the  subject  of 
instruction  in  such  a  way  as  to  commend  it  to  them,  or  by 
stirring  their  intelligences  into  activity  by  inciting  questions 
regarding  it;  3.  By  standing  in  a  place  elevated  above  the 
class,  and  requiring  all  eyes  to  be  fixed  on  him;  4.  By  aiding 
attention  through  representations  of  everything  to  the  senses, 
as  far  as  possible;  5.  By  interrupting  his  instruction  by  fre- 
quent and  pertinent  questions — for  example,  "  What  have  I 
just  said?"  6.  If  the  boy  who  has  been  asked  a  question  should 
fail  to  answer,  by  leaping  to  the  second,  third,  tenth,  thirtieth, 
and  asking  the  answer  without  repeating  the  question;  7.  By 
occasionally  demanding  an  answer  from  any  one  in  the  whole 
class,  and  thus  stirring  up  rivalry;  8.  By  giving  an  oppor- 
tunity to  any  one  to  ask  questions  when  the  lesson  is  finished. 

From  Baker's  Psychology:  "The  degree  of  attention  varies 
with  the  intensity  of  stimulus."  "  Variety  and  novelty  excite 
attention."  "Attention  is  more  likely  to  be  aroused  if  the 
object  accords  with  one's  tastes  and  tendencies.'' 

From  Baldwin's  Psychology  Applied  to  Teaching:  "1.  Bring 
before  the  class  things  interesting  and  profitable;  2.  So  present 
the  subject  as  to  awaken  and  sustain  interest;  3.  Suffer  not  the 
eye  to  wander;  4.  Ask  appropriate  questions;  5.  Hold  each 
member  of  the  class  responsible;  6.  Train  members  of  the 
class  to  ask  questions;    7.  Favor  attention  by  good  manage- 


SCHOOL   ECONOMY.  39 

ment;  8.  Win  attention  by  good  elocution;  9.  Hold  attention 
by  keeping  it  moving;  10.  Stimulate  attention  by  success;  11. 
Inspire  attention  by  pointing  the  way  to  success." 

From  Hewett's  Pedagogy:  "Attention  must  accompany  every 
successful  mental  effort.  There  are  two  ways  in  which  the 
man  may  be  led  to  give  attention:  one  is  by  attracting  it,  so 
that  he  attends  without  effort;  the  other,  by  inducing  him  to 
attend  through  sheer  force  of  will  power.  The  attention  of  the 
child  can  be  gained  in  the  first  way  only — it  can  be  attracted 
and  held  for  a  short  time  only;  but  his  will  is  not  strong 
enough  to  enable  him  to  attend  against  his  inclination,  nor 
after  he  has  become  weary.  And  yet  he  must  attend  if  he  is 
to  do  anything  to  any  purpose.  Nor  can  his  attention  be 
secured  by  frequent  calls  for  attention,  nor  even  by  authority. 
It  must  be  attracted  at  first,  and  its  object  must  be  changed 
frequently.  It  is  a  gradual  process,  by  which  he  gets  the  power 
to  command  attention,  and  this  power  must  be  gained  by  a  judi- 
cious course  of  training.  To  secure  this  training,  let  the  teacher 
make  no  statement  to  the  child,  make  no  explanation,  lay  no 
command,  etc.,  until  he  knows  in  his  own  mind,  with  perfect 
clearness,  what  he  means  to  say;  then  let  him  say  it  slowly, 
clearly,  in  a  few  words,  and  say  it  but  once.  Then  let  him 
insist  rigidly  that  what  is  thus  given  shall  be  remembered  and 
observed.  Let  the  teacher  form  the  habit  of  never  speaking  to 
his  school,  his  class,  or  to  a  single  pupil,  until  he  has  complete 
attention,  and  let  him  stop  speaking  the  instant  attention 
wanders.  In  this  way  everything  that  is  done  in  school  will  be 
an  exercise  in  training  the  attention :  but,  occasionally,  special 
exercises  for  this  purpose  alone  may  be  introduced.  Let  the 
teacher  recite  a  sentence,  to  be  repeated  exactly;  let  him  give 
directions  for  certain  movements  to  be  made,  and  then  require 
an  exact  performance,  etc.  By  such  processes,  and  others  that 
a  thoughtful  and  ingenious  teacher  will  discover,  the  child  is 
trained  until  his  attention  will  obey  his  will  promptly,  fully, 
and  successfully.  When  this  is  done,  he  is  on  the  high  road  to 
the  attainment  of  both  knowledge  and  power." 

Apply  the  laws  of  apperception  in  your  teaching  if  you  wish 
to  keep  attention. 

Have  your  own  mind  on  the  recitation  yourself  and  not  par- 
tially on  some  other  matter,  if  you  wish  to  keep  the  attention 
of  the  class. 


40  SCHOOL   ECONOMY. 

See  that  you  have  a  quiet  school  when  quiet  is  necessary,  and 
speak  in  a  quiet,  firm  tone  of  voice  if  you  wish  to  hold  atten- 
tion.    The  noisy  teacher  fails  in  this. 

Do  not  go  on  with  the  lesson  unless  you  have  the  attention 
of  the  whole  class.  When  you  are  speaking  to  a  class  or  to  the 
school,  stop  instantly  when  any  are  inattentive,  and  wait  till 
all  attend. 

The  teacher  who  continually  calls  "  attention  "  will  be  sure 
not  to  get  it.  Tapping  the  bell,  rapping  on  the  desk,  or  snap- 
ping the  fingers  is  a  good  way  not  to  gain  attention. 

Give  careful  thought  to  the  seating  of  the  class  during 
recitation. 

"A  TEACHER'S   KIT." 

The  teacher  usually  goes  empty  handed  from  one  school  to 
another. 

What  the  members  of  other  professions  need  to  have  to  be 
successful.     What  mechanics  need  to  carry  on  their  work. 

The  teacher  should  have  for  his  own  personal  use  and  for  the 
use  of  pupils  in  the  school-room:  1.  A  pedagogical  library; 
2.  A  microscope;  3.  A  typewriter;  4.  A  mimeograph,  or  some 
other  means  of  making  many  copies  of  a  paper;  5.  Scrap- 
books;  6.  Charts  made  by  himself;  7.  Pictures  to  hang  in  the 
school-room;  8.  Chart  for  testing  eyesight;  9.  Stencil  maps. 

BLACKBOARDS. 

1.  Their  extent;  2.  Their  care;  3.  Their  use;  4.  Swinging 
blackboards. 

What  to  do  in  case  there  are  not  enough  blackboards. 

Ref.:  Baldwin,  474. 

Recipes  for  Slating:  1.  "Take  equal  parts  of  lampblack  and 
flour  of  emery,  and  thin  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
benzine  and  Japan  varnish.  Apply  two  coats  to  any  smooth 
plastered  or  board  wall." 

2.  Mix  1  gallon  alcohol;  1|  lbs.  shellac,  cut  in  alcohol;  1-jlbs. 
pulverized  rotten  stone;  \  lb.  best  lampblack. 

3.  Prepared  slating. 

Importance  of  sandpapering  in  making  a  smooth  board. 

Erasers:  How  to  make  them,  if  they  cannot  be  purchased. 


SCHOOL   ECONOMY.  41 

SIMPLE    AIDS    COLLECTED    OR    PREPARED    BY    THE    TEACHER. 

The  reporter,  for  recording  absence,  tardiness,  or  deportment. 

Pen  and  pencil  racks. 

Dictionary  holder. 

Shelves  for  holding  written  papers. 

"  All  should  be  fish  that  conies  to  the  net  of  the  teacher." 

What  use  to  make  of  figures  from  old  calendars  and 
pamphlets. 

Scraps  of  colored  worsted  and  goods. 

Illustrations  from  catalogues  and  on  cards. 

Short  stories  mounted  on  cards  for  sight-reading. 

Examples  in  Arithmetic,  prepared  at  intervals,  and  mounted 
on  cards. 

Railroad  time-tables,  for  use  in  Geography  work. 

Catalogues  from  school-book  publishers,  for  use  in  the  study 
of  Literature. 

Material  from  kindergarten  stores. 

• 

THE  SCHOOL  MUSEUM. 

Its  use  and  value  in  the  school. 
How  to  make  a  collection. 
What  to  include  in  the  collection. 
Where  to  store  the  collection. 

THE   LIBRARY. 

Generosity  of  the  State  in  regard  to  library  fund. 

The  misuse  of  the  fund  in  most  schools. 

Proper  use  of  the  money  so  appropriated. 

How  to  make  the  best  use  of  the  library. 

How  to  have  pupils  aid  in  forming  a  good  loan  library. 

Care  of  the  library. 

GENERAL  AIDS  TO  SCHOOL  WORK. 

CHARTS    FOR    SCHOOL    USE. 

What  charts  should  be  purchased  by  the  Trustees. 
How  the  teacher  may  make  charts. 
What  charts  should  be  made  by  the  teacher. 
4 — SE 


42  SCHOOL    ECONOMY. 

SCRAP-BOOKS. 

The  important  part  a  scrap-book  may  be  made  to  play  in 
most  schools.     Its  use  and  abuse.     How  to  get  material. 

Care  in  the  selection  of  material. 

Classification  of  material.  Selections  may  be  made  on  the 
following  general  topics:  Geography;  History;  Literature; 
Civil  Government;  Commercial  Facts;  Industrial  Facts; 
Science;  Biography.  As  many  sub-topics  may  be  made  as 
seems  best. 

How  to  make  the  book. 

Committees  from  pupils  appointed  to  take  charge  of  the 
work  under  different  topics. 

Insist  on  care  and  neatness  in  the  preparation. 

BEAUTIFYING  THE  SCHOOL-ROOM. 

Bareness  of  most  school-rooms. 

Comparison  with  rooms  at  home. 

Why  school-rooms  should  be  made  beautiful. 

^Esthetic  culture  lost  sight  of  by  most  teachers.  What  the 
teacher  may  do  in  this  line. 

How  to  get  pictures  and  decorations:  1.  By  entertainments; 
2.  By  gifts  from  patrons;  3.  By  gifts  from  graduating  classes; 
4.  By  loans. 

Inexpensive  pictures  and  decorations. 

BEAUTIFYING  SCHOOL-GROUNDS. 

Condition  of  grounds  surrounding  most  California  schools. 
They  should  be  fenced. 

They  should  have  shade  trees  and  shrubbery. 
They  should  have  nicely  kept  walks. 
They  should  be  kept  clean. 
The  teacher's  duty  in  regard  to  the  grounds. 
What  he  may  usually  induce  the  Trustees  to  do  in  the  way 
of  improving  the  grounds. 

What  he  and  his  pupils  may  do. 
Arbor  day. 


NOTES. 


NOTES. 


NOTES. 


NOTES. 


NOTES. 


NOTES. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  AT  LOS  ANGELES 

THE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


MAR  "2  2'  196V 


Form  L-9-15m-3,'34 


L      Pierce    - 


'i'Vip    t.nnc  _-ri    t,he 

1 1 . 


L0069150266 


SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


AA    000  792  405    3 


kL SCHOOL 


